Burdens faced by the frontier farmers

In addition to the previously mentioned burdens faced by the frontier farmers, possibly the most serious was the threat from Indian violence. By the 1860’s approximately 200,000 Native Americans lived on the Great Plains, which include north and west Texas. There were tremendous differences between the generally peaceful Alabama-Coushatta and the usually bloodthirsty Comanches, Kiowa, and Apaches. However, it is safe to say that most of these tribes were nomadic and non-agricultural.  To a certain extent, all of them depended upon the buffalo for food, clothing, and building material. They used every part of the animal–the meat, skins, bones, tendons (for their bow strings), horns and hooves (boiled into glue). Daily life revolved around the buffalo hunt, as did religious ritual and dance.

In a land nearly devoid of wood, buffalo chips (dung) were used for fuel and building material. Also, one could, in an emergency, kill a buffalo, slit it open, and crawl into its carcass to keep from freezing on cold desert nights. The danger was the carcass could freeze solid and NOT THAW the next morning, trapping the “occupant” inside. One can only wonder what passers-bye imagined if they happened by this scene four or five days later.

Estimates say 75 million buffalo roamed the Great Plains in the 1860’s. Up to 4,000,000 could travel in a single herd. One man reported that he waited 3 full days for a single group of buffalo to gallop by. He measured the trail and found it to be 18 miles wide. Some surveyors verified that a single buffalo herd once occupied 2 entire counties in north Texas. Their prolific breeding rate contributed to the enormous size of the herds.  However, sometimes the herds were so large, the front animals would consume all the grass or water, and the back portion of the herd would starve or dehydrate.  Additionally, the animals were extremely low in intelligence.  They were known to blindly follow their leaders over the edges of cliffs or onto thin ice.

Initially, the federal government reserved all the land west of the Mississippi River for the Native Americans. Treaties guaranteed displaced Eastern tribes their lands in the West for as “long as the grass grows and the rivers run,” but when settlers developed a need for western lands, the government’s official policy changed to “concentration”–definite boundaries, or “reservations,” for each tribe—mostly in modern day Oklahoma.

PROBLEMS IN GIVING NOMADIC INDIANS A FIXED BOUNDARY

1. Nomadic Indians need to follow the buffalo, which would not remain within the confines of the reservation.
2. The government often allocated the less desirable land for Indians’ use, reserving the best land for “civilized” settlement.
3. Although Indians were often promised essential provisions from the federal government, crooked, “Gilded Age” government officials often supplied inferior goods, such as moldy flour, spoiled beef, and moth-eaten blankets.
4. When legitimate Indian chiefs refused to move to a reservation, federal Indian agents sometimes made treaties with phony leaders, in return for liquor or money. This made it appear to the cavalry that the tribes in question were out of compliance, or “renegades.”
5. To most Indian braves, farming was women’s work, and they would not participate in such a culturally demeaning activity.
6. The move to assimilate the Indian into white culture did not work. The idea to “kill the Indian to save the man” by taking young Indians away from their tribes, indoctrinating them with traditional “European” culture, teaching them to farm and fix machinery resulted in many Native youths unwanted by either race. The fact that an Indian was raised “white” did not bring acceptance into mainstream Anglo society, but it did guarantee that the reservation Indians would have no use for these cultural “mongrels.”
7. The Dawes Act abolished communal, tribal ownership of land. The reservation land was divided among each of the family heads, but individual incentive and competition were foreign to the Indians, and they initially made poor capitalists.

It is small wonder that the Indians would leave the reservations from time to time, but this was seen as a serious violation by nervous settlers. Many whites considered Indians as inferior beings–“game to be shot, or vermin to be destroyed.” There was a long series of battles from the 1860’s to the 1880’s.

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